– Overview Statement –
1. Cognitive style in life-long learning and management education and development: a European perspective
Department of Organisation Analysis, Lincoln School of Management, UK.
1.1 Introduction and Background
From the 1970's there has been a growing interest in applying the concept of cognitive/learning styles to educational settings, particularly to methods of teaching and learning (Newstead, 1992) and this has led to the formation of strategies designed to enhance the learning process. Whilst most studies have been confined to the realm of educational psychology, it has also been recognised as a concept that has the potential to make an important contribution to management practice (Streufert & Nogami, 1989; Hayes & Allinson, 1994). Recent years have, in fact, witnessed a burgeoning interest in this area, and there is evidence that earlier educational research is making an important contribution to this emerging field (Hayes & Allinson, 1997). Whilst trainers, developers and educators extend their interests in how to use the concept to maximise management learning, cognitive psychologists continue to investigate the validity of a considerable number of measures and to differentiate between the concepts of learning style and cognitive (personality) style. Principally because of the growing interest in these areas, a group of UK scholars formed the European Learning Styles Information Network (ELSIN). ELSIN is an association of researchers, trainers and educationalists actively involved in the theory and application of cognitive/learning style and the year 2000 will see its fifth annual international conference, drawing in delegates from as far afield as Australia. ELSIN has developed this symposium in order to bring together researchers and practitioners from around the world interested in exploring the potential of applying the cognitive style construct to the field of management.
1.2 Theoretical Framework
The concept of individual differences in quality of cognitive functioning has been around for a long time. For example Armstrong (1999a) cites Cattell (1890), Jung (1923), Lewin (1935) and Witkin (1948) as just a few of the early pioneers. Riding & Cheema (1991) point out that Allport used the term 'cognitive style' as far back as 1937. Since then, a series of definitions has emerged and some of these refer to cognitive style, whereas others refer to learning style, which Jensen (1987) regards as a rather recent phenomenon. Learning style, as the name clearly suggests, had its origins in educational research and Keefe (1979) differentiates it from cognitive style by referring to it in broad terms as including cognitive, affective and physiological preferences. Campbell (1991) points out that whilst the two terms mean different things, they are nevertheless used synonymously in the professional literature which leads to considerable confusion. Curry (1983) attempted to bring order to this chaos by proposing a structure that organised various models of style into strata resembling layers of an onion. The extreme outer layer, labelled instructional preference, is believed to be the least stable and easily influenced by the surrounding environment. The middle layer, referred to as information processing style, is relatively de-coupled from the environment and is believed to be more stable than the outer layer, though it can still be modified to a degree by learning strategies. The inner layer is labelled 'cognitive style', which is believed to be a relatively permanent personality dimension. It is this level which holds the primary interests of the panel participants in this symposium. Style in this context may be defined as a self-consistent mode of functioning which individuals show in their perceptual and intellectual activities (Witkin et al, 1971). It has been suggested that this relates to the characteristic and habitual way in which an individual organises, processes and evaluates information (Goldstein & Blackman, 1978; Messick, 1984) and individual differences in these characteristics manifest themselves as alternative approaches to problem solving, decision making and the communication of ideas (Kalsbeek, 1989). This in turn also affects interpersonal functioning and the way one interacts with and relates to others (Witkin, 1977). Riding et al (1993) suggested that cognitive style differences may be due to differences in left/right hemispheric specialisation of the brain which is a commonly held view shared by other researchers in the field (Mintzberg, 1976; Ornstein, 1977; Doktor, 1978; Robey & Taggart, 1981; Agor, 1984; Taggert et al, 1985; Waber, 1989; Sonnier, 1990; Allinson & Hayes, 1996). This connection between neuro-physiology and cognitive psychology stems from the pioneering work of Sperry (1964), Luria (1966), Gazzaniga (1967) and Bogen (1969). Their studies demonstrated the human left cerebral hemisphere to be specialised for primarily analytic, rational and sequential information-processing and the right cerebral hemisphere to be specialised for primarily intuitive, holistic, and simultaneous information-processing. Whilst some now regard this split-brain formulation as an oversimplification (Rao et al, 1992), others (e.g. Languis, 1998; Languis & Miller, 1992) continue to report patterns of brain mapping research which are consistent with Luria's (1980) theory of brain functioning. Irrespective of whether the left brain/right brain analogy is scientifically correct, it does nevertheless serve as a useful metaphor for describing cognitive differences of this nature.
According to Mitchell (1994) more than 100 instruments have been developed for measuring individual differences of this nature and Armstrong (1999a) identified 54 dimensions on which cognitive style has been differentiated. Although certain authors (e.g. Zelniker, 1989) argue that this multiplicity of constructs reflects the sheer complexity of cognition, others have suggested that they are merely different conceptions of a superordinate dimension (Messick, 1976; Kogan, 1983; Miller, 1987; Rayner & Riding, 1997). On this basis, Riding and Douglas (1993) defined a principal cognitive style group comprised of multiple dimensions and labelled these the Wholist-Analytic cognitive style. These poles are also commonly labelled Intuitive-Analytic (Zeleny, 1975; Doktor, 1978; Agor, 1986; Hammond et al, 1987; Allinson & Hayes, 1996). In a work context, analytic individuals tend to be compliant, their thinking relies on logical sequences and vertical reasoning, they prefer structured approaches to decision making, apply systematic methods of investigation, and are especially comfortable when handling problems requiring a step by step solution. Wholist/intuitive individuals, on the other hand, tend to be nonconformist, their thinking relies on impulsive synthesis and lateral reasoning, they prefer rapid, open-ended approaches to decision making, they rely on random methods of exploration and work best on problems favouring a holistic approach (Allinson, Armstrong & Hayes, forthcoming; Zeleny, 1975; Lynch, 1986). Whilst this super-ordinate dimension represents the main focus of the studies reported in this symposium, other important dimensions are also considered. These include the Verbal-Imagery style of whether an individual is inclined to represent information during thinking either verbally, or in mental images (Riding & Cheema, 1991). This is thought to be independent of the superordinate wholist/intuitive-analytic dimension (Riding et al, 1993). Another very important dimension considered in this symposium is the Creative Person Profile (Martinsen, 1999) which predicts types of creative activity deemed to be valuable and even necessary in many business settings.
1.3 Aims of the Symposium
Against this background and theoretical framework, the aims of the proposed symposium are three-fold. Firstly, it will seek to disseminate information and research findings in order to promote a cross-fertilisation of knowledge in this area. Secondly, it will explore opportunities for international collaboration in research and development. Finally, it will seek to engage the nexus of theory and practice between participants, and encourage a dialectic process in the resolution of differing opinions.
1.4 Submitted Divisions
We believe that a symposium of this nature would be of specific interest to members of the Management Education and Development (MED) division. For MED this symposium provides an opportunity to examine important factors influencing national and cross-national differences in managerial decision making and managerial learning and development strategies. It will also consider the effects of cognitive style on individual performance in management education, and the importance of taking account of individual differences when designing instructional strategies; particularly when promoting learning via computer-mediated communication. The need for business education to focus more on the value of creativity and the possibilities of profiling style differences in management for the benefit of leadership will also be discussed.
We also believe that the symposium will be of significant interest to the Managerial and Organisational Cognition (MOC) division, whose specific domain includes the major topics of decision making, information processing, learning, mental representations and images, and perceptual and interpretative processes. All of these are potentially affected in multiple and important ways by individual differences in cognitive style.
1.5 Session Format
It is proposed that this symposium be a 120 minute programme. It will begin with an introductory session (15 minutes) where the origins and history of ELSIN will be presented. The importance of cognitive style for the new age of life-long learning will also be discussed in the context of management education, development and training. This will be followed by four short presentations (10 minutes each) of current research. Collectively, these look at the implications of cognitive style (micro-level) for:
individual performance in management education,
instructional techniques for teaching and learning via a hypertext environment
characteristics associated with creativity in business settings
profiling management style for the benefit of educational leadership
At this point, 55 minutes into the program, one of the discussants will summarise the proceedings and facilitate a discussion with audience participation lasting a further 15 minutes. This will be followed by three more presentations (10 minutes each) of current research associated with the implications of cognitive style for management education and development at a national (macro) level as follows:
.
facilitation of learning strategy development with evidence from the UK
cross-national differences in managerial decision-making
new models of management education, development & training in Poland
The second discussant will summarise and facilitate a general discussion (with the audience) for the remaining 20 minutes.
1.6 Conference Theme Associations
Time: differential cultural tempos in decision-making; time for reflection in decision-making; new epochs; Poland's time urgency in addressing change; accelerated learning; changing views of time within organisations; new age of life-long learning.
1.7 The Panel Participants
Steve Armstrong recently obtained his PhD (Armstrong, 1999a) on cognitive style and dyadic interaction in working relationships. This work was inspired by observations made in the workplace during his experience as a practising manager in the electronics industry. Since joining the Higher Education profession six years ago, he has co-edited two books, written four book chapters and five journal articles. A large proportion of these publications is concerned with the theory and application of cognitive style (e.g. Armstrong et al, 1997; Armstrong; 1997; Allinson et al, 1999; Armstrong et al, 1999; Armstrong, 1999a; Armstrong, 1999b; Armstrong, 1999c; Armstrong, 1999d; Armstrong & Priola, 1999).
Martin Graff is currently involved in a detailed investigation at the University of Glamorgan into the mapping structure of the various cognitive style labels and the importance of cognitive styles and self-efficacy in using hypertext, and learning via hypermedia. He is also involved in the design of web pages and hypertext-based learning resources which are tailored to the cognitive style of the user.
Jeanne Hill is a Canadian working in the Department of International Business at the University of Central Lancashire who has been studying cognitive/learning style for the past 5 years. The responses of students to her experimentation in alternative curriculum deliveries led to her interest in learning styles; her specialisation in strategic management led to her interest in cognitive style. Her research in the style area has the following main streams: international cultural differences in cognitive styles; style provenance; implications of style for management education and training; style and competency; the role of meta-cognition in learning.
Gerrard P. Hodgkinson is professor of Organisational Behaviour and Strategic Management at Leeds University Business School, The University of Leeds, UK. His main research interests lie in cognitive processes in Strategic Management and over the past decade he has published numerous papers on this topic in a range of scholarly journals including Strategic Management Journal, Journal of Management Studies, and Human Relations. Professor Hodgkinson is especially interested in the nature and significance of actors' mental representations in strategic decision making and the impact of individual difference variables on cognition and choice behaviour. In collaboration with Professor Paul Sparrow of Sheffield University, he is currently co-authoring a book on the Psychology of Strategic Management which is due to be published in 2001. Professor Hodgkinson is general editor of the British Journal of Management, the official Journal of the British Academy of Management.
Patricia Jensen is an Associate Professor of Business and Management at Alverno College in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Her research focuses on the connections between individuals' learning styles and the ways they make sense of their experience and learn through conversation. She has taught in ability-based undergraduate, graduate and executive MBA programs in the United States and in the Netherlands. She received her Ph.D. in Organizational Behaviour from Case Western Reserve University.
Oyvind Martinsen works at the Institute for Knowledge Management at the Norwegian School of Management in Oslo, and for the Psychometrics Unit in the Faculty of Psychology at the University of Bergen in Norway. His primary research interests are in the construct of cognitive style and its relationship to creativity and he has published widely in this field (e.g. Kaufmann & Martinsen, 1995; Martinsen & Kaufmann, 1991; Martinsen, 1993a, 1993b; Martinsen, 1994; Martinsen, 1995; Kaufmann & Martinsen, 1995; Martinsen, 1997).
Stephen Rayner works in the School of Education at the University of Birmingham. His research interests reflect a continuing concern for individual differences across the fields of management in special education and emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). He has published many articles on the subject of cognitive style in journals such as Educational Psychology and has also published books on EBD (e.g. Visser & Rayner, 1999), the management of special education (e.g. Rayner & Ribbins, 1999) and the psychology of education (e.g. Riding & Rayner, 1998; Riding & Rayner, 1999).
Eugene Sadler-Smith Eugene Sadler-Smith is Reader in Human Resource Studies at the University of Plymouth Business School. His research interests include cognitive style and learning style, human resource development and organizational learning. He has published over 25 articles in refereed journals including the International Journal of Human Resource Management, Human Resource Management Journal and Instructional Science. Up until 1994 he was senior training designer with a large public utility in the UK.
Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek holds a PhD in Management and works in the Management Department of the Maria Curie - Skodowska University in Lublin, Poland. Her research interests which have led to more than 20 publications include organizational culture, management development & competencies, and cognitive/learning style. She has held the position of Programme Director at the Lublin Business School and is an active member of the Association of Management Education.
Anna Rakowska holds a PhD in Economics and works in the Department of Management at the Technological University in Lublin, Poland. She is the Dean of Student Education, holds a special interest in managerial skills development and is currently working on a research project involving a sample of 350 practising managers.
1.8 References
Agor, W. H. (1984). Intuitive Management. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.
Agor, W. H. (1986). The logic of intuitive decision making: A research-based approach for top management. New York: Quorum Books.
Allinson, C. W. & Hayes, J. (1996). The Cognitive Style Index: A Measure of Intuition-Analysis for Organisational Research. Journal of Management Studies, 33, 1, 119-135.
Allinson, C. W., Armstrong, S. J. & Hayes, J. (1999). The effects of cognitive style on leader-member exchange: a study of manager-subordinate dyads. (Under review).
Armstrong, S. J., Allinson, C. W. & Hayes, J. (1997). The Implications of Cognitive Style for the Management of Student-Supervisor Relationships. Educational Psychology, 17,2, 209-217.
Armstrong, S. J. (1997). Dissertation supervison: managing the student experience. In S. J. Armstrong., G. Thompson. & S. Brown (Eds), Facing up to Radical Changes in Universities and Colleges, pp. 108-118. London: Kogan Page.
Armstrong, S. J., Allinson, C. W. & Hayes, J. (1999). Formal mentoring systems: an examination of the effects of mentor/protégé cognitive styles on the mentoring process. Paper presented to the Academy of Management Meeting, Careers Division (Aug). Chicago: Ill.
Armstrong, S. J. & Priola, V. (1999). Individual cognitive styles and the composition of self-managing work-teams: an empirical study. (Under review).
Armstrong, S. J. (1999a). Cognitive style and dyadic interaction: a study of supervisors and subordinates engaged in working relationships. Unpublished PhD thesis, Leeds University Business School, University of Leeds, Leeds.
Armstrong, S. J. (1999b). Individual Differences in Cognitive Style and their Potential Effects on Organisational Behaviour: a summary of recent empirical studies. In R. Riding and S. Rayner (Eds.), International Perspectives on Individual Differences, London: Ablex Publishing.
Armstrong, S. J. (1999c). The impact of cognitive differences on the supervision process. In M. Tarras (Ed.) Innovations in Learning and Teaching: teaching fellowships at the University of Sunderland. Sunderland: Sunderland University Press.
Armstrong, S. J. (1999d). The influence of cognitive style on performance in management education. (Under review).
Bogen, J. E. (1975). Educational aspects of hemispheric specialisation. UCLA Educator, 17, 24-32.
Campbell, B. J. (1991). Planning for a Student Learning Style, Journal of Education for Business, Jul, 356.
Cattell, J. McK. (1890) Mental tests and measurements. Mind, 15, 373-381.
Curry, L. (1983). An organisation of learning styles theory and constructs, ERIC Document, 235 185.
Doktor, R. (1978). Problem solving styles of executives and management scientists. TIMS studies in the management sciences, 8, 123-134.
Gazzaniga, M. S. (1967). The split brain in man, Scientific American Pp 24-29, Offprint No. 508. Gazzaniga,M.S., (1970) The Bisected Brain. NYC: Appleton Century Crofts.
Goldstein, K. M. & Blackman, S. (1978). Cognitive Style: Five approaches and relevant research. New York, Wiley Interscience.
Hammond, K. R., Hamm, R. M., Grassia, J. & Pearson, T. (1987). Direct comparison of the efficacy of intuitive and analytical cognition in expert judgement. IEEE Transactions on systems, man and cybernetics, 17, 5, 753-770.
Hayes, J. & Allinson, C. W. (1994). Cognitive Style and its Relevance for Management Practice. British Journal of Management, 5, 53-71.
Hayes, J. & Allinson, C. W. (1997). Learning styles and training and development in work settings: lessons from educational research. Educational Psychology, 17, 185-193.
Jensen, G. H. (1987). Learning Styles. In Provost,J.A., Anchors,S. (Eds) Applications of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Higher Education, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Jung, C. (1923). Psychological Types. London: Pantheon Books.
Kalsbeck, D. H. (1989). Linking learning style theory with retention research: The TRAILS Project. Association for Institutional Research,
Kaufmann, G. & Martinsen, O. (1995). The assimilator-explorer styles and mood. Paper presented at the meeting for the Psychonomic Society, Los Angeles, Nov.
Keefe, J. W. (1979). Learning style: An overview. In National Association of Secondary School Principals (Eds), Student learning styles diagnosing and prescribing programs, Pp 1-17, Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary Principals.
Languis, M.L., (1998). Using knowledge of the brain in educational practice. NASSP Bulletin, 82, pp 38-47.
Languis, M.L. & Miller, D.C. (1992). Luria's Brain Functioning Theory: A Model for Research in Cognitive Psychophysiology. Educational Psychology,27, pp 493-511.
Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher Cortical Functions in Man, New York: Basic Books.
Luria, A.R. (1980). Higher Cortical Functions in Man, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
Martinsen, Ø. & Kaufmann, G. (1991). Effects of imagery, strategy and individual differences in solving insight problems. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 35, 69-77.
Martinsen, Ø. (1999). The creative personality: A synthesis and development of the Creative Person Profile. Technical report. Psychometrics Unit, Bergen: University of Bergen
Martinsen, Ø. (1993a). Insight problems revisited: The influence of cognitive styles and experience on creative problem solving. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 435-447.
Martinsen, Ø. (1993b). The assimilator-explorer cognitive styles and their relationship to selected aspects of personality and ability. Report from Psychometrics Unit, University of Bergen, Norway.
Martinsen, Ø. (1994). The effect of individual differences in cognitive style and motives in solving insight problems. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 38, 83-96.
Martinsen, Ø. (1995). Insight with style: cognitive style and its function in solving insight problems. In G. Kaqufmann, K.H. Teigen, & T. Helstrup (eds). Problem Solving and Cognitive Processes. Essays in Honour of Kjell Raaheim. (Pp. 77-119). Bergen: Fagbokforlaget.
Martinsen, Ø. (1997). The construct of cognitive style and its relationship to creativity. High Ability Studies, 8, 135-158.
Messick, S. (1976). Personality consistencies in cognition and creativity. In Messick,S. and Associates (Eds), Individuality in Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass, 4-22.
Messick,S. (1984). The nature of cognitive styles: problems and promise in educational practice, Educational Psychologist, 19, 2, 59-74.
Miller, A. (1987). Cognitive Styles: an integrated model. Educational Psychology, 7, 4.
Mintzberg, H. (1976). Planning on the left side and managing on the right. Harvard Business Review, Jul, 49-58.
Mitchell, P. D. (1994). Learning styles: a critical analysis of the concept and its assessment. In R. Hoey (Ed) Aspects of Educational and Training Technology XXVII, Designing for Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Ornstein, R. E. (1977). The Psychology of Consciousness, (2nd Ed). New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
Rao, H. R., Jacob, V. S., Lin, F., Robey, D. & Huber, G. P. (1992). Hemispheric specialisation, cognitive differences, and their implications for the design of decision support systems. MIS Quarterly, 16, 145-151.
Rayner, S., & Riding, R. (1997). Towards a Categorisation of Cognitive Styles and Learning Styles. Educational Psychology, 17, 5 – 27.
Rayner, S., & Ribbins, P. (1999) Headteachers and Leadership in Special Education. London: Cassell.,
Reynolds, M. (1997). Learning styles: a critique. Management Learning, 28, 115-133.
Riding, R. & Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive styles - an overview and integration, Educational psychology, 11, 3 & 4.
Riding, R. & Douglas, G. (1993). The effect of cognitive style and mode of presentation on learning performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 297 – 307.
Riding, R., Glass,A. & Douglas, G. (1993). Individual Differences in Thinking: cognitive and neurophysiological perspectives, Educational Psychology, 13, 3 & 4.
Riding, R., & Rayner, S. (1998). Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies. London: David Fulton.
Riding, R., & Rayner, S. (1999). New Perspectives on Individual Differences - Cognitive Styles. Stanford, Conn: Ablex.
Robey, D. & Taggart, W. (1981). Measuring managers' minds: The assessment of style in human information processing. Academy of Management Review, 6, 375 – 383.
Sonnier, I. L. (1990). Hemisphericity: A key to understanding individual differences among teachers and learners. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 18, 1, 17-22.
Sperry, R. W. (1964). The Great Cerebral Commissure, Scientific American, Jan, 42-52, Offprint No 174.
Streufert, S. & Nogami, G. Y. (1989). Cognitive style and complexity: Implications for I/O Psychology; In Cooper,E.L., Robertson,I., (Eds), International Review of Industrial and Organisational Psychology: Chichester, Wiley.
Taggart, W., Robey, D. & Kroeck, K. G. (1985). Managerial Decision Styles and Cerebral Dominance: an empirical study. Journal of Management Studies, 22, 2.
Venn, C. (1984). The subject of psychology. In J. Henriques, W. Holloway, C. Urwin, C. Venn and V. Walkerdine (eds). Changing the Subject. London: Methuen.
Visser, J., & Rayner, S. (1999) Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties: a reader. Stafford: QED Pubs.
Waber,D. (1989). The biological boundaries of cognitive styles: A neurophysiological analysis. In Globerson, T & Zelniker, T (Eds.), Human Development, Volume 3. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Witkin, H. A., Asch, S. E. (1948). Studies in space orientation.IV. Further experiments on perception of the upright with displaced visual fields. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 762-782.
Witkin, H. A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., & Karp,S.A. (1971). A manual for the embedded figures tests, Palo Alto,. Calif.: Consulting psychologists press.
Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977a). Field dependent and field independent cognitive styles and their educational implications, Review of Educational Research, 47, 1, 1-64.
Zelniker, T. (1989). Cognitive Style and Dimensions of Information Processing. In Globerson,T., Zelniker,T., (Eds.), Cognitive Style and Cognitive Development, Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Zeleny, M. (1975). Managers without management science, Interfaces, 5, 35-42.